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PleadingHeader for numbered pleading paperP@n   $] X X` hp x (#%'0*,.8135@8:tbttYtkYbttttb5,5KP5GPGPG5PP,,P,|PPPP5>,PPtPPGM MW5(555555555555P,tGtGtGtGtGkkGbGbGbGbG5,5,5,5,tPtPtPtPtPtPtPtPtPtPtGtPtPtPtPtPYPtGtGtGkGkGkGkGtPbGbGbGbGtPtPtPtPtPtPtPtP5,5,5,5,>tPb,b,b,b,b,tPtPtPtPtPtPtk5k5k5Y>Y>Y>Y>b,b,b,tPtPtPtPtPtPttPbGbGbGtPb,tPk5Y>b,tPtPtPtPtPN8(HP5GPPPPP,2xxP0zzPx0GGP55PPYY5G0ZZXXr,Z55XXXr{rrZ``@Z,rO(Bn``{rrrrF{{{``iOXXXrrrtekX`BbObFbOt`wS55tXnXPtSgOtX{XYX_`FbFn\zStXn{neF`55X\\nec`reeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeFFFFFFF````````````````````555555555555XXXXXXX\\\\\\\\\\\\nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnntbt5tn{5nX"m^2CRddCCCdq2C28dddddddddd88qqqYzoCNzoozzC8C^dCtkktbYtt5>tbttYtkYbttttb`(`lC2CC!CCCCCCCCCCd8YYYYYYzYzYzYzYC8C8C8C8ddddddddddYdddddodYYYYYYYdzYzYzYzYddddddddC8C8C8C8Ndz8z8z8z8z8ddddddCCCoNoNoNoNz8z8z8dddddddzYzYzYdz8dCoNz8dddddNF2[dCYddddd7>d<d<$YYdCCddooCYYJ) 2p}wC 1G;)`2p}wC >YJ) 2p}wC zt,Y5( gY\  PCP7oC2+o\  PCXP No])2p}wCZZXXr,Z55XXXr{rrZ``    V X!bquotesX` ` Bicycles are the most efficient form of movement on this planet and possibly no more or less environmentally friendly than the boots, clothes, packs and other apparatus outdoor recreationists use. Mountainbiking is the best and  X I love it!-!'quotes (Mountainbiking enthusiast, 1993)"` x+++           g/ 4 61#W2p}wCY#CONFLICT IN RECREATION:  g 6(#2p}wC9#THE CASE OF MOUNTAINBIKERS AND TRAMPERS 65 ă  Xz 8#o\  PC+XP#A thesis ,Jsubmitted in partial fulfillment +of the requirements for the Degree ;of ( Master of Parks and Recreation Management 2at Lincoln University <6 <6 <6 <6 <6  a{$ ;#p\  PCP#By 7Chrys Horn 5   X* 36#o\  PC+XP#Lincoln University :n1994+Z0Z0Z0  o <6 gheadA68#2p}wC#ABSTRACT headA#o\  PC+XP#ۃ 6Abstract of a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the m 6%requirements for the Degree of M. P. & R. Mgt.  j  60#4  p(AC #CONFLICT IN RECREATION:  j; 6(# p4  p(AC #THE CASE OF MOUNTAINBIKERS AND TRAMPERS  a6 66# o\  PC+XP# By Chrys Horn ă Conflict in Recreation is a major problem for recreation managers who are trying to provide satisfying experiences for all recreationists. This thesis is about conflict between mountainbikers and trampers. Mountainbiking has grown in popularity in new Zealand over the last ten years, and these increasing numbers have threatened the quality of walkers' and runners' recreational experiences, particularly in periurban areas. Conflict is a complex social interaction process which occurs around times of change. It involves the interplay of perceptions and attitudes, behaviour, and an incompatible situation. This complexity required the use of a range of methods to successfully understand the conflict between walkers and mountainbikers. Like many other recreational conflicts, the conflict between bikers and trampers is asymmetrical walkers dislike meeting bikers much more than bikers dislike meeting walkers. A majority of walker respondents disliked or strongly disliked meeting bikers on walking tracks. Walkers' questionnaire answers indicated that their greatest concerns with mountainbiking are (in order of decreasing importance) track damage and other environmental damage, personal safety, and the feeling that bikes interrupt their peace,Z0.. and quiet. Further exploration during indepth interviews show that the perception of these problems are closely related to the way different users feel about that places that they use, and the way meetings with other users can be incorporated into the experiences  X of the recreationist. For walkers, meeting bikers is far more intrusive than viceversa. Political activity aimed at eliminating bikers from many frontcountry areas means that bikers are now developing a dislike of trampers who they see as intolerant and arrogant. Therefore, behaviour affects the escalation of conflict. In addition, wider social change has had an influence on this conflict. Changing economic wellbeing, less regular work hours, a perceived lack of time and a wider choice of activities have all impacted on recreation patterns in periurban areas, and on this conflict situation.  X In addition, this study has indicated that the concepts of specialisation and substitution may need modification. The use of qualitative methods has highlighted the narrow focus that researchers have used when studying these concepts. Both must be seen more broadly in the context of individuals' changing recreational needs both over the life cycle, and in the face of social change as outlined above.  X~ KEYWORDS: mountainbiking, motivations, preferences, conflict, goal interference, social change, substitution, specialisation theory, tramping, constraints, time deepening,  V Galtung Triangle, triangulation of methods.  $Z0..  o  gheadA 64#2p}wC#ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS headA#o\  PC+XP#ۃ Many people and organisations have helped me in my efforts to investigate the situation that exists between mountainbikers and trampers. Without them, in fact this research could not have gone ahead. First and foremost there are all the people that gave up their time to fill in questionnaires and to talk to me in person about their feelings and experiences. I never ceased to be impressed by the generosity of those that gave their time freely when they could have been out participating in their favourite activity! There were also those who helped put my questionnaires into envelopes so they could be sent out. A big thank you to the Department of Conservation who helped by providing financial support for this research. It has certainly made the whole process easier. As well as this, many of my work colleagues have been a big help along the way. They were there when I needed all sorts of help. Of these I particularly would like to mention my supervisors Pat Devlin and David Simmons for their suggestions and guidance along the way. Tracy Berno has been a source of inspiration and a major source of help during the long process of analysing data and wondering what it all meant! As well as this, Catriona McBean, Steve Sutton, Miranda Sikking, Simon Hedley, Stephen Espiner, Bob Ryan, Bruce Rendall, Liz Parkin, and Mandy Anderson have all helped with hints, comments, criticism, encouragement and companionship. It is impossible to mention all those in the department who have also helped with timely advice, information or just a friendly smile when the going was getting tough! The process has mostly been an enjoyable and learning experience thanks to the input of these people. Most importantly of all, I would like to thank my partner Tussock. It is not always easy to live with someone who is writing a thesis and I appreciate the patience and practical support that I have received from him at the times when I have most needed it.!-Z0..Ԍ o   Й gheadA 6#2p}wC#TABLE OF CONTENTSe headA#o\  PC+XP#ۃ ABSTRACTpJ##h ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSp##h iv TABLE OF CONTENTSp##h v LIST OF FIGURESp##h ix LIST OF TABLESp##h x INTRODUCTIONp##h 1 XXi i 1.1 Conflictƥ!i p##h 1 XXi i 1.2 MountainBikingƥ!i p##h 3 XXi i 1.3 The Research Areaƥ!i p##h 4 XXi i 1.4 Research Objectivesƥ!i p##h 5 XXi i 1.5 Thesis Organisationƥ!i p##h 6 LITERATURE REVIEWp##h 7 XXi i 2.1 Introductionƥ!i p##h 7 XXi i 2.2 General Conflict Perspectivesƥ!i p##h 8 XXi i X %i i 2.2.1 Classical Views of Conflictƥ! p##h 9 XXi i X %X, %2.2.1.1 Marxismƥ!p##h 9 XXi i X %X, %2.2.1.2 Feminismƥ!p"#h 10 XXi i X %i i 2.2.2 Microsociological Approaches to Conflictƥ! p"#h 11 XXi i X %X, %2.2.2.1 The Role of Meaningƥ!p"#h 11 XXi i X %X,Xqq3,2.2.2.1.1 Language as Meaningƥ!qp"#h 11 XXi i X %X, %2.2.2.2 Game Theoryƥ!p"#h 12 XXi i X %i i 2.2.3 Structurationist Perspectives and Complexity Theoryƥ! p"#h 16 XXi i X %X, %2.2.3.1 Complexity and Chaos in Social Systemsƥ!p"#h 16 XXi i X %i i 2.2.4 The Cycle of Conflictƥ! p"#h 17 XXi i X %i i 2.2.5 The Role of Conflictƥ! p"#h 17 XXi i X %i i 2.2.6 Conflict Broad and Narrow Definitionsƥ! p"#h 18 XXi i X %i i 2.2.7 Section Summaryƥ! p"#h 20 XXi i 2.3 Perspectives on Leisureƥ!i p"#h 21 XXi i X %i i 2.3.1 Perceived Freedomƥ! p"#h 21 XXi i X %i i 2.3.2 Flowƥ! p"#h 21 XXi i X %X, %2.3.2.1 Controlƥ!p"#h 22 XXi i X %i i 2.3.3 Response to Crowdingƥ! p"#h 23 XXi i X %X, %2.3.3.1 Motivationsƥ!p"#h 23 XXi i X %X, %2.3.3.2 Expectationsƥ!p"#h 23 XXi i X %X, %2.3.3.3 Preferencesƥ!p"#h 24 XXi i X %i i 2.3.4 Expectations, Motivations, Control and Freedomƥ! p"#h 24 XXi i X %i i 2.3.5 Section Summaryƥ! p"#h 25 XXi i 2.4 Conflict in Recreational Settingsƥ!i p"#h 25 XXi i X %i i 2.4.1 Increasing Conflict in Recreationƥ! p"#h 25 XXi i X %i i 2.4.2 Situational Factors in Recreational Conflictƥ! p"#h 26 XXi i X %i i 2.4.3 Criticisms of Past Researchƥ! p"#h 27 XXi i X %i i 2.4.4 Section Summaryƥ! p"#h 28 XXi i 2.5 Conflict as Goal Interferenceƥ!i p"#h 29 XXi i X %i i 2.5.1 Activity Styleƥ! p"#h 29 XXi i X %X, %2.5.1.1 Specialisation Theoryƥ!p"#h 29 XXi i X %i i 2.5.2 Environmental Relationƥ! p"#h 31-Z0..ԌXXi i X %X, %2.5.2.1 Sense of Placeƥ!p"#h 31 XXi i X %X, %2.5.2.2 Place Attachmentƥ!p"#h 32 XXi i X %X, %2.5.2.3 Behaviour Settingsƥ!p"#h 33 XXi i X %X, %2.5.2.4 Scriptsƥ!p"#h 33 XXi i X %X, %2.5.2.5 Schemes of Orderƥ!p"#h 33 XXi i X %X, %2.5.2.6 Familiarityƥ!p"#h 34 XXi i X %i i 2.5.3 Mode of Experienceƥ! p"#h 35 XXi i X %i i 2.5.4 Tolerance of Lifestyle Diversityƥ! p"#h 35 XXi i X %i i 2.5.5 Comparing Conflict with Crowdingƥ! p"#h 36 XXi i X %i i 2.5.6 Perceptions of Differenceƥ! p"#h 37 XXi i X %i i 2.5.7 The Galtung Triangleƥ! p"#h 37 XXi i X %i i 2.5.8 Section Summaryƥ! p"#h 39 XXi i 2.6 Conflict Between Bikers and Walkersƥ!i p"#h 40 XXi i X %i i 2.6.1 OffRoad Biking Figuresƥ! p"#h 40 XXi i X %X, %2.6.1.1 Limitations of Biking Figuresƥ!p"#h 40 XXi i X %X, %2.6.1.2 Estimates of OffRoad Biking in New Zealandƥ!p"#h 41 XXi i X %i i 2.6.2 Attitudes and Perceptionsƥ! p"#h 42 XXi i X %i i 2.6.3 The Political Arenaƥ! p"#h 44 XXi i X %i i 2.6.4 Section Summaryƥ! p"#h 44 XXi i 2.7 Chapter Summaryƥ!i p"#h 44 METHODOLOGYp"#h 47 XXi i 3.1 Introductionƥ!i p"#h 47 XXi i 3.2 Epistemology and Ontologyƥ!i p"#h 47 XXi i X %i i 3.2.1 A Humanist Frameworkƥ! p"#h 48 XXi i X %i i 3.2.2 Quantitative Methodsƥ! p"#h 50 XXi i X %i i 3.2.3 Qualitative Methodsƥ! p"#h 52 XXi i X %i i 3.2.4 Section Summaryƥ! p"#h 53 XXi i 3.3 Data Collectionƥ!i p"#h 53 XXi i X %i i 3.3.1 In Depth Interviewsƥ! p"#h 54 XXi i X %i i 3.3.2 Participant Observationƥ! p"#h 57 XXi i X %i i 3.3.3 Questionnairesƥ! p"#h 58 XXi i X %i i 3.3.4 Response Rateƥ! p"#h 59 XXi i 3.4 Data Analysisƥ!i p"#h 61 XXi i X %i i 3.4.1 Analysing Questionnaire Dataƥ! p"#h 61 XXi i X %i i 3.4.2 Analysing Qualitative Dataƥ! p"#h 61 XXi i 3.5 Limitationsƥ!i p"#h 62 XXi i 3.6 Chapter Summaryƥ!i p"#h 63 RESULTSp"#h 65 XXi i 4.1 Introductionƥ!i p"#h 65 XXi i 4.2 Macrosociological or Situational Factorsƥ!i p"#h 67 XXi i X %i i 4.2.1 MountainBiker Profilesƥ! p"#h 67 XXi i X %X, %4.2.1.1 Sex Distributionƥ!p"#h 67 XXi i X %X, %4.2.1.2 Perceived Competence and Competitionƥ!p"#h 69 XXi i X %X, %4.2.1.3 Ageƥ!p"#h 70 XXi i X %X, %4.2.1.4 Participation in the Older Age Groupsƥ!p"#h 71 XXi i X %X, %4.2.1.5 Club Membershipƥ!p"#h 72 XXi i X %X, %4.2.1.6 Educationƥ!p"#h 74 XXi i X %X, %4.2.1.7 Bikers' Past Outdoor Experienceƥ!p"#h 75 XXi i X %X,Xqq3,Motocrossƥ!qp"#h 75-Z0..ԌXXi i X %X,Xqq3,Cyclingƥ!qp"#h 76 XXi i X %X,Xqq3,Bikers with Other Outdoor Experienceƥ!qp"#h 77 XXi i X %i i 4.2.2 Off-Road Useƥ! p"#h 78 XXi i X %X, %4.2.2.1 What is a MountainBiker?ƥ!p"#h 78  X XXi i X %X, %4.2.2.2 What is OffRoad?ƥ!p"#h 79 XXi i X %i i 4.2.3 Estimates of OffRoad Useƥ! p"#h 79 XXi i X %X, %4.2.3.1 Questionnaire Estimates of OffRoad Useƥ!p"#h 80 XXi i X %i i 4.2.4 Frequency of Useƥ! p"#h 81 XXi i X %i i 4.2.5 Where Do Bikers Bike?ƥ! p"#h 81 XXi i X %i i 4.2.6 Styles of Ridingƥ! p"#h 83 XXi i X %X, %4.2.6.1 Racingƥ!p"#h 83 XXi i X %X, %4.2.6.2 Trainingƥ!p"#h 84 XXi i X %X, %4.2.6.3 Recreational Ridingƥ!p"#h 84 XXi i X %i i 4.2.7 Preferences for Tracksƥ! p"#h 85 XXi i X %i i 4.2.8 Hazardsƥ! p"#h 86 XXi i X %X, %4.2.8.1 Hypoglycaemiaƥ!p"#h 87 XXi i X %X, %4.2.8.2 Dehydrationƥ!p"#h 87 XXi i X %X, %4.2.8.3 Breakdownsƥ!p"#h 88 XXi i X %i i 4.2.9 Wider Social Influencesƥ! p"#h 88 XXi i X %X, %4.2.9.1 Economics.ƥ!p"#h 88 XXi i X %X, %4.2.9.2 Timeƥ!p"#h 89 XXi i X %X, %4.2.9.3 Time Deepeningƥ!p"#h 90 XXi i X %X, %4.2.9.4 Time Deepening and Postmodern Analysesƥ!p"#h 91 XXi i X %i i 4.2.10 Substitutionƥ! p"#h 92 XXi i X %X, %4.2.10.1 Implications for Further Researchƥ!p"#h 93 XXi i X %i i 4.2.11 MountainBiking and Specialisationƥ! p"#h 95 XXi i X %i i 4.2.12 Section Summaryƥ! p"#h 96 XXi i 4.3 Microsociological Factorsƥ!i p"#h 97 XXi i X %i i 4.3.1 The Existence of Conflictƥ! p"#h 97 XXi i X %X, %4.3.1.2 Strategiesƥ!p"#h 99 XXi i X %i i 4.3.2 Who Hates Whom?ƥ! p"#h100 XXi i X %i i 4.3.3 Perceptions of Differenceƥ! p"#h101 XXi i X %i i 4.3.4 Envyƥ! p"#h103 XXi i X %i i 4.3.5 Feelings of Threatƥ! p"#h103 XXi i X %i i 4.3.6 Traditionƥ! p"#h103 XXi i X %i i 4.3.7 Imageƥ! p"#h104 XXi i X %X, %4.3.7.1 Media Imageƥ!p"#h105 XXi i X %X, %4.3.7.2 Combatting the Bad Imageƥ!p"#h105 XXi i X %i i 4.3.8 Toleranceƥ! p"#h106 XXi i X %i i 4.3.9 Environmental Attitudesƥ! p"#h107 XXi i X %i i 4.3.10 Focusƥ! p"#h109 XXi i X %X, %4.3.10.1 Physical Fitnessƥ!p"#h111 XXi i X %X, %4.3.10.2 Excitement / Thrillsƥ!p"#h111 XXi i X %X, %4.3.10.3 Challenge and Skillƥ!p"#h112 XXi i X %X, %4.3.10.4 Flowƥ!p"#h112 XXi i X %X, %4.3.10.5 Mode of Experienceƥ!p"#h113 XXi i X %X, %4.3.10.6 Appreciationƥ!p"#h114 XXi i X %X, %4.3.10.7 Changing Focus with Age and/or Experienceƥ!p"#h115 XXi i X %i i 4.3.11 Past Experience and Relationship to Placeƥ! p"#h116 XXi i X %i i 4.3.12 Mode of Experience and Conflictƥ! p"#h118 XXi i X %i i 4.3.13 Specialisationƥ! p"#h118-Z0..ԌXXi i X %i i 4.3.14 Specialisation into Placeƥ! p"#h119 XXi i X %i i 4.3.15 MountainBiking and Place Identityƥ! p"#h121 XXi i X %i i 4.3.16 Walkers' Experiences of Meeting MountainBikersƥ! p"#h122 XXi i X %i i 4.3.18 Experience Stylesƥ! p"#h123 XXi i X %i i 4.3.19 Role of Controlƥ! p"#h124 XXi i X %i i 4.3.20 Section Summaryƥ! p"#h125 XXi i 4.4 Behaviourƥ!i p"#h127 XXi i X %i i 4.4.1 Political Activityƥ! p"#h127 XXi i X %i i 4.4.2 Organisationƥ! p"#h129 XXi i X %i i 4.4.3 Complianceƥ! p"#h129 XXi i X %i i 4.4.4 Access Issuesƥ! p"#h130 XXi i 4.5 Chapter Summaryƥ!i p"#h131 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSp"#h134 XXi i 5.1 Introductionƥ!i p"#h134 XXi i 5.2 Summary of Research Findingsƥ!i p"#h134 XXi i X %i i 5.2.1 Theoretical Baseƥ! p"#h134 XXi i X %i i 5.2.2 Macrosociological Bases of Conflictƥ! p"#h135 XXi i X %i i 5.2.3 Microsociological (Subjective) Aspectsƥ! p"#h137 XXi i X %i i 5.2.3 Behaviourƥ! p"#h140 XXi i 5.3 Implicationsƥ!i p"#h141 XXi i 5.4 Side Issuesƥ!i p"#h145 XXi i 5.4 Further Research Opportunitiesƥ!i p"#h146 XXi i 5.5 Final Wordƥ!i p"#h147 BIBLIOGRAPHYp"#h149 PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONSp"#h159 INTERVIEW CONTACTSp"#160 APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .`"#1637 Z0..  o  gheadA6F#2p}wC#LIST OF FIGURESW headA#o\  PC+XP#ۃ  Figure 1: The Prisoner's Dilemma (adapted from Axelrod, 1984:8)p"# 13  Xn Figure 2: Conceptual Model of Recreational Conflict (adapted from Bury et al. 1983:403).p"# 27 Figure 3: Tramper/ Hiker Specialisation (From Bryan, 1979:66). . . . . . . . . . . . . `5##30 XFigure 4: The Galtung Triangle (In Bercovitch, 1984:6).ƥ!p"# 38 XFigure 5: Sex Distribution of Bikers and NonBikers.ƥ!p"# 68 XFigure 6: Age Groups of Bikers and Nonbikers.ƥ!p"# 70 XFigure 7: Educational Qualifications of Bikers and NonBikers.ƥ!p"# 74 XFigure 8: Previous Experience with Motorised TrailBikes.ƥ!p"# 75 XFigure 9: Participation in Other Outdoor Activities.ƥ!p"# 78 XFigure 10: How Bikers Used Their Bikes During the Last Yearƥ!p"# 80 XFigure 11: Frequency of Use OffRoad During the Last Year.ƥ!p"# 82 XFigure 12: Places that Bikers Ride their Bikes.ƥ!p"# 83 XFigure 13: Substitution Types (from Shelby and Vaske, 1991: 23)ƥ!p"# 94 XFigure 14: Feelings about Meeting Walkersƥ!p"# 98 XFigure 15: Feelings about Meeting Runnersƥ!p"# 99 XFigure 16: Feelings about Meeting Bikersƥ!p"#100 XFigure 17: What Bikers think Trampers Dislike About MountainBiking.ƥ!p"#104 XFigure 18: What Trampers Feel are the Problems with MountainBiking.ƥ!p"#107 XFigure 19: Tramper's Motivations for Tramping.ƥ!p"#109 XFigure 20: Motivations for MountainBiking.ƥ!p"#110 ! Z0..  o  gheadAF#2p}wC#LIST OF TABLES ` headA#o\  PC+XP#ۃ Table Ip"# 60  Z0..