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PleadingHeader for numbered pleading paperP@n   $] X X` hp x (#%'0*,.8135@8:`a"m^'/BNN|e'//6R'/''NNNNNNNNNN//RRRVeeee]Vme'NeVuem]me]Ve]]]V/'/RN'NVNVN/VV''N'|VVVV6N/VNmNNF6'6R/'////////////V'eNeNeNeNeN|eN]N]N]N]N''''''''eVmVmVmVmVeVeVeVeV]NeNeVmVmV]NeV]VeNeNeNeNeNeNeNeV]N]N]N]NmVmVmVmVmVmVeVeV''''''''NeNV'V'V'V'V'eVeVeVeVmVmVe6e6e6]N]N]N]NV/V/V/eVeVeVeVeVeVm]NVFVFVFeVV'eVe6]NV/]N]NeVmVeVN1'NN/VNNNNN43uuN/ggNu/!FFN//NNVV'F/head3g 3heading 3=k<@ #:x2p}wC iX## o\  PC+XP#head2g 2Heading 2@?j0 #2p}wC9##o\  PC+XP#chaptheadChapter?@W'O X D#2p}wC9##o\  PC+XP#2e b!b"Xc#/dheadAChapter heading Ig0  X -#2p}wC ## o\  PC+XP#quoteslong quotes!b'Xhead4g 4heading 4"@Z? #:s2PkCXXP##o\  PC+XP#head1g 1heading 1#@0c?0[ #2p}wC ##o\  PCXP#2vc8ehXjcl"m^2CoddȧCCCdr2C28ddddddddddCCrrrdzNdzoȐC8CtdCdoYoYCdo8Co8odooYNCodddYO,OhC2CC!CCCCCCCCCCo8dddddȐYYYYYN8N8N8N8oddddooooddoddddzodddYYYYoYYYYddddddooN8N8N8N8do88888ooooddȐYYYoNoNoNoNCCCooooooȐdYYYo8oYoNCddodoNF2ldCddddddXhh4>>Im4>44hhhhhhhhhh>>mmmr}r4hr}}r}}}r>4>mh4hrhrh>rr44h4rrrrIh>rhhh]I4Im>4>>>>>>>>>>>>r4hhhhhh}h}h}h}h44444444rrrrrrrrr}hhrrr}hr}rhhhhhhhr}h}h}h}hrrrrrrrr44444444hhr4r4r4r4r4rrrrrrIII}h}h}h}hr>r>r>rrrrrr}hr]r]r]rr4rI}hr>}h}hrrrNA4hh>rhhhhhEDh>h>,]]h>>hhrr4]>"m^2NoddCCCdr2C28ddddddddddCCrrrdNdzzozzzC8CrdCddYdYCdo88d8odddNN8oYdYNF,FrC2CC!CCCCCCCCCCd8dddddYYYYYN8N8N8N8oddddoooozYddddzYdzddddYYYYdYYYYddddddooN8N8N8N8ddz8z8z8z8z8ooooddNNNoNoNoNoNz8z8z8oooooozYzNzNzNdz8oNoNz8zYzYddoNF2ddNdddddd54.(p2x4vC06NA.w2x4vC~FBi2s`vab*b|z:7oC2+o\  PCXP 4 F5nC2 Ӯn*f9 xCXXG6NA92p}wC HNo]2p}wCI>YJ 2p}wC 1G;`2p}wCJ>YJ 2p}wC zKW!C(kSAC\  PChP,p>4Ip2p}wC0L6NA92p}wC zt,Y5( gY\  PCP M7oC2+o\  PCXP N/xC8i:x2p}wCXDO1sC8.X:s2PkCXPP1sC88n:s2x(CXX7tC2J?t4  p(ACXz:7oC2+o\  PCXP 4 F5nC2 Ӯn*f9 xCXXG6NA92p}wC HNo]2p}wCI>YJ 2p}wC 1G;`2p}wCJ>YJ 2p}wC zKW!C(kSAC\  PChP,p>4Ip2p}wC0L6NA92p}wC zt,Y5( gY\  PCP M7oC2+o\  PCXP N/xC8i:x2p}wCXDO1sC8.X:s2PkCXPP1sC88n:s2x(CXXQ7tC2J?t4  p(ACXDRq%V2*.䡬V2PkCPSs#Z2*-Z2p}wCq%V2*8=V2x(CX2dZ z:7oC2+o\  PCXP 4 F5nC2 Ӯn*f9 xCXXG6NA92p}wC HNo]2p}wCI>YJ 2p}wC 1G;`2p}wCJ>YJ 2p}wC zKW!C(kSAC\  PChP,p>4Ip2p}wC0L6NA92p}wC zt,Y5( gY\  PCP M7oC2+o\  PCXP N/xC8i:x2p}wCXDO1sC8.X:s2PkCXPP1sC88n:s2x(CXXQ7tC2J?t4  p(ACXDRq%V2*.䡬V2PkCPSs#Z2*-Z2p}wCTq%V2*8=V2x(CX6pC2[kp9 xICX>YJ 2p}wC 1G;`2p}wC  Xu WchaptheadDe+#2p}wC9#Chapter 1 Ochapthead #o\  PC+XP#ۃ  o  gheadAfe)#2p}wC#INTRODUCTIONR headA#o\  PC+XP#ۃ #0chead1  _ #2p}wC #1.1 Conflict#0[head1#o\  PC+XP# Conflict in recreation is a concern for recreation managers, because conflict stops people from achieving full satisfaction from their chosen activity (Jackson, 1989; Driver and Tocher, 1970). Dissatisfied recreationists may move to places offering better conditions. This change then impacts on recreationists already using the new area and they, in turn,  Xb will have to move to find their preferred conditions. In this way, changes in one area  X can trigger changes in more remote places, causing a kind of recreational succession or  X! further up the valley syndrome (Devlin and O'Connor, 1988: 181; Nielsen, Shelby and Haas, 1977). Outdoor recreation management is often linked to managing for nature conservation (Devlin and O'Connor, 1988). Managers must balance the conflicting priorities of conservation and different recreational activities, a task that Dunn (1980) considers to be one of the most difficult land managers have to address. The New Zealand Department of Conservation is frequently torn between its roles of focusing on conservation and of)-Z0.. encouraging the sort of recreational use that turns individual recreationists into advocates for conservation (Hislop, 1989). Without good quality recreational experiences in natural areas, there will be little public concern for nature conservation, but conservation also requires limits on recreational use. With experience, people's sensitivity to negative environmental impacts increases (Schreyer, Lime and Williams, 1984) and they become more emotionally attached to their recreational resource (Moore and Graefe, 1994; Williams, Patterson, Roggenbuck and Watson, 1992; Bryan, 1979). Thus, potential advocates for conservation, are unlikely to develop a strong conservation focus until they have had many satisfying recreational  X^ experiences in natural settings (Williams et al., 1992; Bryan, 1979). This is at the heart of the conservation use paradox. Because conservation depends on public support, managers must try to provide opportunities for a wide range of recreational tastes; from opportunities for people to enjoy nature through to opportunities to focus mainly on their chosen activity. Balance is difficult to achieve, because those out to enjoy nature who are the strongest advocates for conservation are also most easily affected by the impacts of other users. Conversely, people with an activity focus need the opportunity to participate in their chosen recreation in order to develop this conservation focus. This difference in focus, in itself, may cause conflict, and displacement of experienced users (Bryan, 1979). Additionally, conflict in recreational settings may displace less experienced users, preventing them from developing a conservation focus. On the other hand, restricting the types of activities allowed in natural areas, could engender resentment amongst people who are excluded (Jackson and Wong, 1982). Conflict in recreation is an inevitable result of increasing demand for outdoor recreation opportunities at the same time as new technologies are increasing the range of activities5,Z0.. in which people can participate. Increasing demand puts more pressure on recreation resources, especially in periurban areas. Additionally, different activities may not mix well, as evidenced by documented conflicts such as those between canoeists and motorcraft users (Driver and Bassett, 1975), fishers and canoeists (Driver and Bassett, 1975), and skiers and snowmobilers (Butler, 1982). Conflict is noticed when one user group begins exerting political pressure, either directly or through the media, on administering bodies to exclude others. Initially, political activity can take the form of telephone or written complaints and later it may become more intensive with lobby groups being formed to push for desired ends. Occasionally conflict may be reflected in the behaviour of the different users when they meet in the recreational setting, however the literature does not record this phenomenon. Recreationists, who dislike meeting other user groups, may greet them in a friendly or neutral manner (Adelman, Heberlein and Bonnickson, 1982) which develops and maintains the asymmetrical conflict situations commonly found in recreation settings. #0chead1  _v #2p}wC #1.2 MountainBikingI#0[head1#o\  PC+XP# This study arises from the development of mountainbiking, a sport centred around cycling off the road, over varied terrain, on bikes built to withstand hard knocks and rough treatment. Modern day mountainbiking, as defined in this study, began back in the late 1970s in Northern California when two men Gary Fisher and Charles Crow  X" built the first clunkers. The fine art of clunking has since spread across the world and clunkers have developed into sophisticated machines with complex suspensions, lightweight frames, highly effective brakes, and tyres for every possible set of conditions. Mountainbikes became a significant user group in New Zealand during the mid 1980s (Chalmers, 1989). Today mountainbikes are very popular: sales in New Zealand have  X- grown over the last five years to comprise a majority of the cycle market at the present-Z0.. time, although this growth is levelling out. These figures were gained through interviews with people in the cycle industry. Mountainbikers dressed in their padded cycling shorts and bright lycra tops are now a familiar sight on tracks that were once the domain of walkers only. Comments and complaints to organisations, such as local councils and the Department of Conservation, have indicated that there is a conflict problem that needs addressing. Additionally, literature from the United States documents problems associated with mountainbiking (for example, Goldstein, 1987; Jacoby, 1990).  X In many respects, walkers' dislike of mountainbikers is unexpected. Many trampersX  X ԍ. Tramping is the New Zealand equivalent of hiking.X and walkers cycle, and cycling is usually considered environmentally friendly. Additionally, many mountainbikers are also active trampers and therefore, are not so very different from walkers. Conflict between walkers and bikers therefore could be expected to be of less intensity than the conflict between skiers and snowmobilers or canoeists and motorcraft users. However, to the person who felt that letting mountain X bikes use walking tracks was about the equivalent of suggesting that a gang of sharks be  X released into [a local swimming pool] (The Press, 20th July, 1992:2), this assumption is obviously incorrect. #0chead1  _ #2p}wC #1.3 The Research Area#0[head1#o\  PC+XP# Initially the research was to be a case study of use on the Heaphy Track, however, early publicity eventually prevented the study going ahead. Some members of the Nelson Conservation Board felt that running such a study was tantamount to encouraging mountainbike use on the Heaphy Track. Instead, the research was changed to a more general study based in the Canterbury area. An important area of investigation was the Port Hills, near Christchurch. Being close to a city of 308 000 people, the Port Hills is frequented by a variety of recreational groups including walkers, rock climbers,(yZ0.. parapenters, hang gliders, runners, canoeists, motorcyclists, cyclists, mountainbikers, horseriders, sightseers and picnickers (Canterbury United Council, 1986). The proximity of these many and varied users makes the Port Hills an excellent site to begin a study on recreational conflict. However, the study was not area specific. A range of sites were discussed with respondents and sampling occurred in Wellington, Arthur's Pass, and near the Lewis Pass, as well as in the Christchurch region. Although the focus of this study was primarily on conflict between mountainbikers and walkers, many other conflicts were mentioned by respondents throughout the course of the research. Runners, dog owners, horseriders, trail bikers and even large groups of walkers were all mentioned as a nuisance by other users on the Port Hills. It does appear, however that mountainbiking has given rise to more complaints than most of these other groups (Turner, 1992, Pers. comm.). #0chead1  _0 #2p}wC #1.4 Research Objectives&#0[head1#o\  PC+XP# Very little empirical research has been done on mountainbiking either here or overseas. Some other studies have been done specifically with the aim of highlighting places that may be considered physically suitable for mountainbiking (e.g. Sarah Gerard and Associates, 1992). There are also many articles in the popular press debating the impacts of mountainbikes (for example, McKerrow, 1989). Many mountainbikers that I spoke to felt that there was no conflict, however, this largely seemed to depend on how conflict was defined. Additionally, some authors have suggested that previous research into recreational conflict has had little application because it lacks a theoretical base. The objectives of this research had to reflect these problems. They are as follows: 1.to establish and test a firm theoretical base from which to understand this, and other, recreational conflicts. This, ultimately, should make this research applicable to conflict in other recreational settings;" -Z0..Ԍ2.to clarify the existence and extent of conflict in this setting;" 3.to record mountainbikers' demographic profiles, and to look at their motivations, satisfactions, preferences, previous experience and future aspirations;" 4.to compare the activity of mountainbiking with that of tramping; and" 5.to understand the underlying factors in the conflict between mountainbikers and trampers. These include influences in both the social and socialpsychological settings in which the conflict is occurring." #0chead1  _G #2p}wC #1.5 Thesis Organisation.#0[head1#o\  PC+XP# Chapter 2 provides a literature review that outlines current understandings of conflict in general and then focuses in on previous studies of conflict in recreational settings. Chapter 3 records the methods used to find answers to the question outlined above. Issues of epistemology, validity and reliability are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 4 records and interprets the results of the research using the Galtung Triangle (outlined in Chapter 2) as the organisational framework for the chapter, while Chapter 5 concludes the thesis.